Email this article 
Interplay of Different Parameters in COVID‐19 Infection and Novel Results of Possible Prevention and Treatment (Review of the Literature)
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and the resulting coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) remains a global challenge. There are intense studies for finding effective prevention and treatment options worldwide. Therefore, infection prevention, prognostic parameters of infection complication and identification of successful treatment protocols need more investigations.
Interpretation of laboratory parameters may support clinicians in prevention and treatment of the disease, will improve COVID 19 infection outcomes and may potentially decrease the death rate overall.
Study results have shown that different laboratory parameters during the disease course are significantly changed. In critically ill patients, coagulation complications and coagulation/anticoagulation imbalance are characteristic also. According to the research results, vaccination offers the best option for COVID-19 control.
In this review, some parameters, current therapeutic options, preventive methods of COVID 19 infection are discussed.
Keywords
Full Text:
PDFReferences
Arendse L.B., Jan Danser A.H., Poglitsch M., Touyz R.M., Burnett J.C., Llorens-Cortes C., Ehlers M.R., Sturrock E.D. Novel therapeutic approaches targeting the renin-angiotensin system and associated peptides in hypertension and heart failure. Pharmacol. Rev. 2019;71:539–570.
Aggarwal S, Gollapudi S, Gupta S. Increased TNF‐alpha‐induced apoptosis in lymphocytes from aged humans: changes in TNF‐alpha receptor expression and activation of caspases. J Immunol. 1999; 162(4): 2154‐ 2161.
BahrampourJuybari K., Pourhanifeh M.H., Hosseinzadeh A., Hemati K., Mehrzadi S. Melatonin potentials against viral infections including COVID-19: Current evidence and new findings. Virus Res. 2020;287:198108. doi: 10.1016/j.virusres.2020.198108.
Brüssow H. Immunology of COVID-19. Environ Microbiol. 2020 Dec;22(12):4895-4908
Bermejo-Martin JF, Almansa R, Torres A, et al. COVID-19 as a cardiovascular disease: the potential role of chronic endothelial dysfunction. Cardiovasc Res. 2020 Aug 1;116(10):e132-3
Cardinali D. Brown G. Pandi-Perumal S.Can Melatonin Be a Potential “Silver Bullet” in Treating COVID-19 Patients?Diseases. 2020 Dec; 8(4): 44.
CDC. Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) – Cases in the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).
Cevik M, Kuppalli K, Kindrachuk J, et al. Virology, transmission, and pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2. BMJ. 2020 Oct 23;371:m3862
Chan JF, Zhang AJ, Yuan S, et al. Simulation of the clinical and pathological manifestations of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID‐19) in golden Syrian hamster model: implications for disease pathogenesis and transmissibility. Clin Infect Dis. 2020.
Cox Robert M., Josef D. Wolf, Richard K.Plemper. Therapeutically administered ribonucleoside analogue MK-4482/EIDD-2801 blocks SARS-CoV-2 transmission in ferrets. Nature Microbiology, 2020; DOI: 10.1038/s41564-020-00835-2).
Deng Y, Liu W, Liu K, et al. Clinical characteristics of fatal and recovered cases of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) in Wuhan, China: a retrospective study. Chin Med J (Engl). 2020; 133(11): 1261‐ 1267.
Eby GA, Davis DR, Halcomb WW. Reduction in duration of common colds by zinc gluconate lozenges in a double-blind study. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. (1984) 25:20–4. depending on dosage, zinc compound and the start time after initial symptoms (115).
El-Aziz Abd, T.M., Al-Sabi, A. & Stockand, J.D. Human recombinant soluble ACE2 (hrsACE2) shows promise for treating severe COVID¬19. Sig Transduct Target Ther 5, 258 (2020). ttps://doi.org/10.1038/s41392-020-00374-6.
Eric J. Rubin, M.D., Ph.D. Expression of Concern: Mehra MR et al. Cardiovascular Disease, Drug Therapy, and Mortality in Covid-19. N Engl J Med. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa2007621):
Eurosurveillance Editorial Team. Note from the editors: World Health Organization declares novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) sixth public health emergency of international concern. Eurosurveillance. 2020 Feb 6;25(5):200131e.
EvangelosTerpos, IoannisNtanasis‐Stathopoulos, Ismail Elalamy, EfstathiosKastritis et al Hematological findings and complications of COVID‐19. AmJHematol.2020;95:834–847
Fischer K, Hoffmann P, Voelkl S, et al. Inhibitory effect of tumor cell‐derived lactic acid on human T cells. Blood. 2007; 109(9): 3812‐ 3819.
Frieden TR, Lee CT. Identifying and interrupting superspreading events: implications for control of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. Emerg Infect Dis. 2020 Jun;26(6):1059-66
Fruchter O, Yigla M, Kramer MR. d-dimer as a prognostic biomarker for mortality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbation. Am J Med Sci. 2015;349(1):29–35.
Goshua G, Pine AB, Meizlish ML, et al. Endotheliopathy in COVID-19-associated coagulopathy: evidence from a single-centre, cross-sectional study. Lancet Haematol. 2020 Aug;7(8):e575-82
Guo T, Fan Y, Chen M, et al. Cardiovascular Implications of Fatal Outcomes of Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID‐19). JAMA Cardiol. 2020;e201017.
Hemilä H. Zinc lozenges and the common cold: a meta-analysis comparing zinc acetate and zinc gluconate, and the role of zinc dosage. JRSM Open. (2017) 8:2054270417694291
Hu Z, Song C, Xu C, et al.; CDC. Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): Recommendations for Cloth Face Covers. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, et al; Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet. 2020 Feb 15;395(10223):497-506
Hulisz D. Efficacy of zinc against common cold viruses: an overview. J Am Pharm Assoc. (2003). (2004) 44:594–603. doi: 10.1331/1544-3191.44.5.594.
18. Jafari-Vayghan H., Saleh-Ghadimi S., Maleki V., Moludi J., Alizadeh M. The effects of melatonin on neurohormonal regulation in cardiac cachexia: A mechanistic review. J. Cell. Biochem. 2019;120:16340–16351.
Jarcho John A., M.D., Julie R.Ingelfinger, M.D., Mary Beth Hamel, M.D., M.P.H., Ralph B. D’Agostino, Sr., Ph.D., and David P. Harrington, Ph.D. Inhibitors of the Renin–Angiotensin–Aldosterone System and Covid-19.
Kahn SR, Lim W, Dunn AS, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonsurgical patients: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence‐Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest. 2012; 141(suppl 4): e195S‐ e226S.
Ke Wang, Wei Chen, Zheng Zhang, Yongqiang Deng, Jian-Qi Lian, Peng Du, Ding Wei, Yang Zhang, Xiu-Xuan Sun, Li Gong CD147-spike protein is a novel route for SARS-CoV-2 infection to host cells. Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, 100071, China;
Li T, Lu H, Zhang W. Clinical observation and management of COVID‐19 patients. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2020; 1: 687‐ 690.
Liu A. H., Wang L.L., Zhao S.J., Kwak-Kim J., Mor G., Liao A.H. Why are pregnant women suscep-tible to viral infection: an immunological viewpoint? Journal of reproductive immunology. 2020 Mar 19: 103122;
Liao YC, Liang WG, Chen FW, Hsu JH, Yang JJ, Chang MS. IL‐19 induces production of IL‐6 and TNF‐alpha and results in cell apoptosis through TNF‐alpha. J Immunol. 2002 Oct 15; 169(8): 4288‐ 4297.
Limin Yang , Deyu Tian , Wenjun Liu . Strategies for vaccine development of COVID-19. 2020 Apr 25;36(4):571-592.
Lippi G, Plebani M, Henry BM. Thrombocytopenia is associated with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infections: A meta-analysis. ClinChimActa. 2020 Jul;506:145-148.
Livingston E, Bucher K. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Italy. JAMA. 2020 Apr 14;323(14):1335
Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, et al. Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding. Lancet. 2020 Feb 22;395(10224):565-74.).
Madjid M, Safavi‐Naeini P, Solomon SD, Vardeny O. Potential effects of coronaviruses on the cardiovascular system: a review. JAMA Cardiol. 2020.
Mandeep R. Mehra, M.D., Sapan S. Desai, M.D., Ph.D., SreyRam Kuy, M.D., M.H.S., Timothy D. Henry, M.D., and Amit N. Patel, M.D.Cardiovascular Disease, Drug Therapy, and Mortality in Covid-19. N Engl J Med 2020; 382:e102
Martineau AR, Forouhi NG. Vitamin D for COVID-19: a case to answer?. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology. 2020 Sep 1;8(9):735-6.
Meltzer DO, Best TJ, Zhang H, Vokes T, Arora V, Solway J. Association of vitamin D status and other clinical characteristics with COVID-19 test results. JAMA network open. 2020 Sep 1;3(9):e2019722-.
Mirzaei R, Karampoor S, Sholeh M, Moradi P, Ranjbar R, Ghasemi F. A contemporary review on pathogenesis and immunity of COVID-19 infection. Molecular biology reports. 2020 Jul;47(7):5365-76.
Ong Edison, Mei U Wong, Anthony Huffman, and Yongqun He. COVID-19 Coronavirus Vaccine Design Using Reverse Vaccinology and Machine Learning. Published online 2020 Jul doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01581; Systems biology for industrial biotechnology.
Paraskevis D, Kostaki EG, Magiorkinis G, et al. Full-genome evolutionary analysis of the novel corona virus (2019-nCoV) rejects the hypothesis of emergence as a result of a recent recombination event. Infect Genet Evol. 2020 Jan 29;79:104212
Philippe Gautret,a,b,$ Jean-Christophe Lagier,a,c,$ Philippe Parola,a,b Van Thuan Hoang,a,b,d Line Meddeb,a Morgane Mailhe,a Barbara Doudier,a Johan Courjon et all. Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as a treatment of COVID-19: results of an open-label non-randomized clinical trial. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020 Jul; 56(1): 105949
Qi, F., Qian, S., Zhang, S. & Zhang, Z. Single cell RNA sequencing of 13 human tissues identify cell types and receptors of human coronaviruses. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1, 135–140 (2020);
Qu R, Ling Y, Zhang YH, et al. Platelet‐to‐lymphocyte ratio is associated with prognosis in patients with coronavirus disease‐19. J Med Virol. 2020
Querol-Ribelles JM, Tenias JM, Grau E, Querol-Borras JM, Climent JL, Gomez E, Martinez I. Plasma d-dimer levels correlate with outcomes in patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Chest. 2004;126(4):1087–92.
Rahman A., Hasan A.U., Kobori H. Melatonin in chronic kidney disease: A promising chronotherapy targeting the intrarenal renin–angiotensin system. Hypertens. Res. 2019;42:920–923
Ren LL, Wang YM, Wu ZQ, et al. Identification of a novel coronavirus causing severe pneumonia in human: a descriptive study. Chin Med J (Engl). 2020 May 5;133(9):1015-24
Rello J.,1, Belliato M. Apdate in COVID-19 in the intensive care unit from the 2020 HELLENIC Athens International symposium Anaesth Crit Care Pain. 2020 Dec;39(6):723-730.
Santos R.A.S., Oudit G.Y., Verano-Braga T., Canta G., Steckelings U.M., Bader M. The renin-angiotensin system: Going beyond the classical paradigms. Am. J. Physiol. Hear. Circ. Physiol. 2019;316:H958–H970.
She A. Jiatong, Liu Lanqin, Liu Wenjun COVID–19 Epidemic: Disease Characteristics in Children J Med Virol 2020 Jul; 92(7). – PP. 747–754.
Shi S, Qin M, Shen B, et al. Association of cardiac injury with mortality in hospitalized patients with COVID‐19 in Wuhan, China. JAMA Cardiol. 2020;e200950.
Singh S, Sharma A, Arora SK. High producer haplotype (CAG) of ‐863C/A, −308G/A and ‐238G/A polymorphisms in the promoter region of TNF‐alpha gene associate with enhanced apoptosis of lymphocytes in HIV‐1 subtype C infected individuals from North India. PLoS One. 2014; 9(5):e98020
Snijders D, Schoorl M, Schoorl M, Bartels PC, van der Werf TS, Boersma WG. D-dimer levels in assessing severity and clinical outcome in patients with community-acquired pneumonia. A secondary analysis of a randomised clinical trial. Eur J Intern Med. 2012;23(5):436–41.
Spinner CD, Gottlieb RL, Criner GJ, et al. Effect of Remdesivir vs standard care on clinical status at 11 days in patients with moderate COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2020;324(11):1048-1057
Tan D.X., Hardeland R. Potential utility of melatonin in deadly infectious diseases related to the overreaction of innate immune response and destructive inflammation: Focus on COVID-19. Melatonin Res. 2020;3:120–150.
Tang N, Li D, Wang X, Sun Z. Abnormal coagulation parameters are associated with poor prognosis in patients with novel coronavirus pneumonia. J ThrombHaemost. 2020; 4: 844‐ 847.
Tay M.Z., Poh C.M., Rénia L., MacAry P.A., Ng L.F. The trinity of COVID–19: immunity, inflammation and intervention. Nature Reviews Immunology. 2020 Apr 28: 1–2.
To KK, Hung IF, Chan JF, Yuen KY. From SARS coronavirus to novel animal and human coronaviruses. J Thorac Dis. 2013 Aug;5 Suppl 2(Suppl 2):S103-8.
Tomazini BM, Maia IS, Cavalcanti AB, et al. Effect of dexamethasone on days alive and ventilator-free in patients with moderate or severe acute respiratory distress syndrome and COVID-19: the CoDEX randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2020. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32876695
Tong ZD, Tang A, Li KF, et al. Potential presymptomatic transmission of SARS-CoV-2, Zhejiang province, China, 2020. Emerg Infect Dis. 2020 May 17;265;
Wang D, Hu B, Hu C, et al. Clinical characteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 novel coronavirus‐infected pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA. 2020; 323(11):1061‐1069.
Wang MX, Win SS, Pang J. Zinc supplementation reduces common cold duration among healthy adults: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials with micronutrients supplementation. Am J Trop Med Hyg. (2020).
Wessels I, Rolles B., Rink L. The Potential Impact of Zinc Supplementation on COVID-19 Pathogenesis. Front. Immunol., 10 July 2020
WHO Secretariat Ana Maria Henao-Restrepo, Pierre Gsell, Ximena Riveros. WHO R&D Blueprint novel Coronavirus WHO Working Group – Vaccine R&D for COVID-19 Vaccines, © World Health Organization 2020
William A. Haseltine - Progress And Possibilities For Treating COVID-19. Forbes, United States. May 14, 2020
Writing Committee for the R-CAPI, Angus DC, Derde L, et al. Effect of hydrocortisone on mortality and organ support in patients with severe COVID-19: the REMAP-CAP COVID-19 corticosteroid domain randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2020. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32876697
Wu C., Chen X., Cai Y., et all. Risk Factors Associated With Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome and Death in Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA Intern Med 2020.
Wu F et al (2020) A new coronavirus associated with human respiratory disease in China. Nature 579(7798):265–269
Xie Y, Wang Z, Liao H, et al. Epidemiologic, clinical, and laboratory findings of the COVID-19 in the current pandemic: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Infect Dis. 2020 Aug 31;20(1):640..
Xu H, Zhong L, Deng J, et al. High expression of ACE2 receptor of 2019‐nCoV on the epithelial cells of oral mucosa. Int J Oral Sci. 2020; 12(1): 8.
You B, Ravaud A, Canivet A, et al. The official French guidelines to protect patients with cancer against SARS‐CoV‐2 infection. Lancet Oncol. 2020; 21(5): 619‐ 621.may also inhibit lymphocyte proliferation.
Yumeng Yao, Jiatian Cao, Qingqing Wang, Qingfeng Shi, et al. D-dimer as a biomarker for disease severity and mortality in COVID-19 patients: a case control study. Journal of Intensive Care volume 8, Article number: 49 (2020)
Zhai B. Pan, Ding Yanbing, Wu Xia, Long Junke, Zhong Yan-jun, Li Yiming . The Epidemiology, Diagnosis and Treatment of COVID–19 Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020 May; 55(5): 105955.
Zhang, L. et al. The D614G mutation in the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein reduces S1 shedding and increases infectivity. at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7310631/ (2020);
Zheng X, Zheng P, Sun J. Sheng Wu Gong Cheng Xue Bao. 2019 Oct 25;35(10):1955-1973. doi: .13345/j.cjb.190217).
Zhou F, Yu T, Du R, et al. Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID‐19 in Wuhan, China: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet 2020 28; 395(10229): 1054–1062
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.52155/ijpsat.v25.1.2760
Refbacks
- There are currently no refbacks.
Copyright (c) 2021 Levan Ratiani, Luiza Gabunia, Shorena Khetsuriani, Natia Gamkrelidze, Lia Gumbaridze, Elena Varazi
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.